Varangerfjord is an inland waterway in extreme northeastern Norway near the border with Russia above the arctic circle. During the Gressbakken phase of Norway's Younger Stone Age (ca 2400-1800 cal BC), this harsh environment was the home of complex hunter-gatherers, who survived the arctic climate year-round in semi-subterranean structures. Varangerfjord is the northeastern most fjord in Norway, and it marks the southern boundary of the Varanger Peninsula.
The Varanger Peninsula was completely covered by glacial ice throughout the last glaciation, and probably first deglaciated ~15,000 years ago. At the end of the Younger Dryas (ca 12,500 to 11,500 bp), the complete peninsula was free of ice. Archaeological evidence within northern Norway suggests that a high degree of sedentism and a relatively high population density was present by at least 2000 BC.
Gressbakken Phase Settlement Patterns at Varangerfjord
To date, some 39 Gressbakken phase sites have been identified in the Varangerfjord region, each with evidence for between 1 and 30 houses. The houses are so-called Gressbakken Houses, semi-subterranean (that is, dug partly into the ground) structures with interior hearths. Gressbakken sites appear to fall into two distinct groups with different occupation histories: sites along the inner fjord, and sites along the coastal inlets.
Sites located along the inner fjord appear to have been excavated deeper into the soil, with extensive midden deposits (trash heaps) and abundant artifacts. Most of these sites were occupied year-round, with the largest populations in residence during the winter and spring. During the winters and early springs, the inner fjord Gressbakken people dined on migrating birds, cod, and harp seals. These sites were also occupied during the summers and falls; however, it appears as if only a core of the population remained in the inner fjord for the summer, surviving on summer fish such as saithe and migrating reindeer.
The other type of site consists of short-term camps located on the coastal inlets occupied only during the spring and summer. These semi-subterranean house depressions are significantly shallower than those within the interior; the summer saithe dominates the fish bones and an abundance of harp and juvenile ringed seals suggests spring and summer occupations. The majority of these sites were abandoned during the winter months.
Living at Varangerfjord
Artifacts identified at Varangerfjord sites include reindeer bone and antler tools such as fish hooks, barbs, barbed points and harpoons, all directly associated with fishing and hunting activiites. Some decorative objects such as combs, canine tooth beads and figurines were made of worked pinniped (sea mammal) bone. Other working tools of reindeer bone and antler include daggers, scrapers, awls, and chisels.
Archaeology at Varangerfjord
Archaeological investigations within the Varangerfjord region have been conducted since the 1960s, led by H. Olsen among others. The Gressbakken type site, on the inner fjord and with fifteen house depressions with a faunal assemblage dominated by sea mammals, birds and reindeer, was excavated by Simonsen in the mid-twentieth century.
Sites in Varangerfjord: Gressbakken, Bergeby, Karleborn, Advik, Kalkillebukta, Hoybukt.
Sources
This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to Arctic Archaeology, and the Dictionary of Archaeology.
Helama S, and Hood BC. 2011. Stone Age midden deposition assessed by bivalve sclerochronology and radiocarbon wiggle-matching of Arctica islandica shell increments. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(2):452-460.
Hodgetts L. 2010. Subsistence diversity in the Younger Stone Age landscape of Varangerfjord, northern Norway. Antiquity 84(323):41–54.
Hodgetts L, and Rahemtulla F. 2001. Land and sea: use of terrestrial mammal bones in coastal hunter-gatherer communities. Antiquity 75:56-62.
Sanjaume E, and Tolgensbakk J. 2005. Raised beach forms and evidence of submarine permafrost on the Varanger Peninsula, North Norway. Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue 49:3-8.
